Amendment IX
Ratified: December 15, 1791
Summary
Asserts that people have rights not listed in the Constitution.
Full Text
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
History and Context
The Ninth Amendment is a profound and ingenious solution to a serious problem that worried the framers. Critics of the Bill of Rights, like Alexander Hamilton, argued that listing certain rights might imply that these were the *only* rights the people had. What about all the other fundamental liberties that were not written down? The Ninth Amendment was James Madison's answer. It is a declaration that the people possess a vast reservoir of rights beyond those explicitly listed in the Constitution. It makes it clear that the Bill of Rights is not an exhaustive list, but merely a sample of the most essential freedoms.